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Cover
Title Page
Society of Dyers and Colourists
Preface
1 General Chemistry Related to Textiles
1. 1.1 Introduction
2. 1.2 Atomic Structure
3. 1.3 Periodic Table of the Elements
4. 1.4 Valency and Bonding
5. 1.5 Chemical Reactions
6. 1.6 Acids, Bases and Salts
7. 1.7 Redox Reactions
8. 1.8 Organic Chemistry
9. 1.9 The Use of Chemicals by Industry
2 Textile Fibres
1. 2.1 Introduction
2. 2.2 Nature of Fibre‐Forming Polymers
3. 2.3 Properties of Textile Fibres
4. 2.4 Mechanical Properties of Textile Fibres
5. 2.5 Chemistry of the Main Fibre Types
6. 2.6 Protein Fibres
7. 2.7 Regenerated Fibres
8. 2.8 Synthetic Fibres
9. 2.9 Conversion of Synthetic Polymers into Fibre Filaments
10. 2.10 Fibre Cross‐Sectional Shapes
11. 2.11 Microfibres
12. 2.12 Absorbent Fibres
13. 2.13 Drawing of Synthetic Fibre Filaments
14. 2.14 Conversion of Man‐Made Fibre Filaments to Staple
15. 2.15 Imparting Texture to Synthetic Fibres
16. 2.16 Fibre Blends
17. 2.17 Textile Manufacturing
18. Suggested Further Reading
3 Chemistry of Dyes and Pigments
1. 3.1 Introduction
2. 3.2 Classification of Colorants
3. 3.3 Colour in Organic Molecules
4. 3.4 Classification of Dyes According to Chemical Structure
5. 3.5 Classification of Dyes According to Application Class
6. 3.6 Commercial Naming of Dyes and Pigments
7. 3.7 Strength and Physical Form of Colorants
8. References
4 Industrial Coloration Methods
1. 4.1 Introduction
2. 4.2 Dye Application Processes
3. 4.3 Dyeing Machinery
4. 4.4 Supercritical Fluid Dyeing
5. References
6. Suggested Further Reading
5 Textile Printing
1. 5.1 Introduction
2. 5.2 Print Paste Formulation
3. 5.3 Thickeners
4. 5.4 Binders
5. 5.5 Pigments and Dyes
6. 5.6 Printing Screens
7. 5.7 Stages of Printing
8. 5.8 Printing Styles
9. 5.9 Printing Methods
10. Suggested Further Reading
6 Theoretical Aspects of Dyeing
1. 6.1 Introduction
2. 6.2 Kinetic Aspects of Dyeing
3. 6.3 Dye Aggregation
4. 6.4 Diffusion
5. 6.5 Rate of Dyeing
6. 6.6 Adsorption
7. 6.7 Thermodynamic Information Derived from Equilibrium Studies of Dyeing Systems
8. References
9. Suggested Further Reading
7 The Measurement of Colour
1. 7.1 Introduction
2. 7.2 Describing Colour
3. 7.3 Additive and Subtractive Colour Mixing
4. 7.4 The Colour Solid
5. 7.5 Factors Affecting Colour Appearance
6. 7.6 The CIE System of Colour Specification
7. 7.7 Applications of the CIE System
8. 7.8 Solution Colour Measurement
9. Suggested Further Reading
8 Fastness Testing
1. 8.1 Introduction
2. 8.2 Standards Related to Coloration
3. 8.3 Resistance of Coloured Fabric to Harmful Agencies
4. 8.4 Principles of Colour Fastness Testing
5. 8.5 Fastness Tests
6. 8.6 Test Organisations for Sustainable Textile Manufacture
7. References
Appendix: Some Textile Terms and Definitions
Index
End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 01
1. Table 1.1 Filling of the shells by electrons in the first 30 elements.
2. Table 1.2 Common functional groups in organic compounds.
Chapter 02
1. Table 2.1 Codes for some man‐made fibres.
2. Table 2.2 Worldwide production of some textile fibre types, thousand metric tonnes, 2014.
3. Table 2.3 Important fibre properties.
4. Table 2.4 Moisture regain values of some textile fibres (measured at 20 °C and 65% relative humidity).
5. Table 2.5 Examples of different types of amino acids occurring in protein fibres.
Chapter 03
1. Table 3.1 Colour Index application classes.
2. Table 3.2 Example of the information given in a CIGN entry in the Colour Index.
3. Table 3.3 Characteristics of acid dyes.
4. Table 3.4 Characteristics of fibre‐reactive groups.
Chapter 04
1. Table 4.1 Summary of dye types used on wool.
Chapter 05
1. Table 5.1 Guidelines for the temperature and pressure of dry saturated steam.
Chapter 06
1. Table 6.1 Aggregation behaviour of dye application classes.
2. Table 6.2 Size/charge ratios of dyes showing different aggregation behaviour.
3. Table 6.3 Diffusion coefficients of two disperse dyes on different fibres [2].
4. Table 6.4 Activation energies of diffusion of different dye/fibre systems [4].
5. Table 6.5 Time of half‐dyeing of direct dyes on viscose dyed at 90 °C [6].
6. Table 6.6 Structures of some typical anionic dyes.
7. Table 6.7 Standard affinities of some direct dyes applied to cotton and viscose at various temperatures [9].
8. Table 6.8 Standard affinities of C.I. Direct Blue 1 applied to viscose and Tencel at 100 °C, in the presence of 0.02 mol/l NaCl (viscose) and 0.08 mol/l NaCl (Tencel) [10, 11].
9. Table 6.9 Standard affinities of some polycyclic vat dyes applied to cotton at 40 °C [9, 12].
10. Table 6.10 Thermodynamic values for some anthraquinone dyes applied to wool at 50 °C and pH 4.6 [13].
11. Table 6.11 Standard affinities of a series of dyes of increasing hydrophobic character applied to nylon 6.6 at 95 °C at pH 6.1 [14].
12. Table 6.12 Effect of increasing basicity on standard affinity of acid dyes on nylon 6.6.
Chapter 07
1. Table 7.1 Colour temperatures of typical light sources.
2. Table 7.2 Weighted ordinates for Illuminant D65, 10° observer (values are shown at 20 nm intervals).
3. Table 7.3 Calculation of tristimulus values (Illuminant D65, 10° observer) for a green‐coloured fabric.
4. Table 7.4 Tristimulus values of the perfect reflecting diffuser viewed under different illuminants (10° observer).
5. Table 7.5 Values of absorbance for different values of %T.
Chapter 08
1. Table 8.1 Colour fastness standards.
2. Table 8.2 ISO 105‐A series of standards.
3. Table 8.3 Colour‐difference values of the grey scale for change in colour and staining.
4. Table 8.4 Terms used for the qualitative description of colour changes.
5. Table 8.5 ISO 105‐B series of standard tests for light fastness.
6. Table 8.6 ISO 105‐C series of standard tests for wash fastness.
7. Table 8.7 Standard adjacent fabrics for use in fastness testing.
8. Table 8.8 Multifibre adjacent fabrics.
9. Table 8.9 Conditions specified in BS EN ISO 105‐C10 standard test for wash fastness.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 01
1. Figure 1.1 The three p orbitals.
2. Figure 1.2 Periodic table of elements.
3. Figure 1.3 Electronic arrangements of the sodium and chlorine atoms (the ↑↓ arrows indicate electrons with opposite spins).
4. Scheme 1.1 Reaction between sodium and chlorine.
5. Scheme 1.2 Reaction between calcium and chlorine atoms.
6. Scheme 1.3 Dissociation of the sulphonate group.
7. Scheme 1.4 Formation of the chlorine molecule.
8. Scheme 1.5 Formation of methane (outer electrons only are shown); x electron from carbon, • electron from hydrogen.
9. Figure 1.4 Tetrahedral molecular structure of the methane (CH₄) molecule.
10. Figure 1.5 Electronic structure of the carbon atom.
11. Figure 1.6 Electronic structure of the sp³‐hybridised carbon atom.
12. Scheme 1.6 Covalent bonding by nitrogen and oxygen atoms with hydrogen atoms.
13. Figure 1.7 Dipole–dipole attraction between molecules.
14. Figure 1.8 Hydrogen bonding in water (─ covalent bond, ‐‐‐‐ hydrogen bond).
15. Figure 1.9 π–H bonding.
16. Scheme 1.7 General formula representing a synthesis reaction.
17. Scheme 1.8 Formation of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen.
18. Scheme 1.9 General formula representing a decomposition reaction.
19. Scheme 1.10 Decomposition of calcium carbonate.
20. Scheme 1.11 Single and double displacement reactions.
21. Scheme 1.12 General formula representing a general reaction in which a reactant changes to a product.
22. Scheme 1.13 General formula representing a reversible reaction.
23. Figure 1.10 Effect of temperature on the energy of molecules: blue line low temperature; red line high temperature. E is the activation energy.
24. Figure 1.11 Energy pathway of a chemical reaction. (a) An exothermic reaction and (b) an endothermic reaction.
25. Scheme 1.14 Formation of carbon dioxide from carbon and oxygen.
26. Scheme 1.15 Burning of methane in oxygen.
27. Scheme 1.16 Reduction of vat dyes.
28. Scheme 1.17 Redox reactions of sulphur dyes.
29. Figure 1.12 Zigzag form of hydrocarbon chains.
30. Figure 1.13 sp² hybridisation.
31. Figure 1.14 σ and π bonds in ethane.
32. Scheme 1.18 Dissociation of carboxylic acids.
33. Scheme 1.19 Formation of esters.
34. Scheme 1.20 Formation of amides.
Chapter 02
1. Figure 2.1 The textile and clothing industries and their supporting functions.
2. Figure 2.2 Classes of textile fibres.
3. Figure 2.3 Normal and skewed distributions of molecular masses in polymers.
4. Figure 2.4 Crystalline and amorphous structure of polymer molecules in fibres.
5. Figure 2.5 Typical stress–strain diagrams of (a) natural and (b) synthetic fibres.
6. Scheme 2.1 Formation of cellobiose from two glucose units.
7. Figure 2.6 Cotton bolls.
8. Figure 2.7 Cotton fibre, (a) structure represented diagrammatically, (b) as a scanning electron photograph.
9. Scheme 2.2 Degradation products due to over‐oxidation of the glucose rings of cellulose.
10. Scheme 2.3 Formation of a dipeptide from two amino acid molecules.
11. Scheme 2.4 Growth of a polypeptide chain.
12. Figure 2.8 (a) Diagrammatic representation of the structure of a wool fibre. (b) Electron microscope photograph of a merino wool fibre.
13. Figure 2.9 Distribution of the orthocortex and paracortex in a wool fibre.
14. Scheme 2.5 Degradation of the polypeptide chain in wool by alkali (or strong acid).
15. Figure 2.10 Rupture and re‐formation of cross‐links.
16. Figure 2.11 Stages of manufacture of viscose and lyocell fibres (the pink arrows show the use and recovery of the NMMO solvent).
17. Scheme 2.6 Synthetic route for the formation of polylactic acid.
18. Figure 2.12 Routes to the formation of synthetic fibres.
19. Figure 2.13 The stepwise construction of a ‘hook and eye’ chain.
20. Scheme 2.7 Reaction between a dicarboxylic acid and a diamine.
21. Scheme 2.8 Formation of a nylon polymer.
22. Scheme 2.9 Formation of nylon 6.6.
23. Scheme 2.10 Formation of nylon 6.
24. Scheme 2.11 Synthesis of (a) a m‐aramid, for example, Nomex, and (b) a p‐aramid, for example, Kevlar.
25. Scheme 2.12 Synthesis of polyester.
26. Scheme 2.13 Polymerisation of ethene to give polyethylene.
27. Scheme 2.14 Addition polymerisation of cyanoethene.
28. Figure 2.14 Different methods of fibre spinning: (a) melt spinning, (b) dry spinning, (c) wet spinning, (d) dry‐jet wet spinning.
29. Figure 2.15 Orifice shape and the cross sections of the resulting filaments.
30. Figure 2.16 Drawing fibre filaments.
31. Figure 2.17 Changes in molecular orientation in filaments during drawing: (a) at the filament emerges from the spinneret, orientation is mainly random (amorphous); (b) on cooling and stretching some crystalline order appears, with a degree of general orientation along the fibre axis; (c) further stretching aligns amorphous and crystalline regions along the fibre axis.
32. Figure 2.18 Schematic diagrams of fibre crimping methods: (a) stuffer box, (b) knife edge, (c) Gear crimp, (d) air jet, (e) false twist.
33. Figure 2.19 S‐twist and Z‐twist.
34. Figure 2.20 Winding from bobbins on to a beam.
35. Figure 2.21 Rear view of a loom showing the beam and warped threads.
36. Figure 2.22 Plain weave types (a) plain weave – one over one then one under one, (b) hopsack two over two then two under two.
37. Figure 2.23 (a) 2 × 1 twill weave, (b) 2 × 2 twill weave.
38. Figure 2.24 Satin weaves (a) warp‐faced satin, (b) weft‐faced satin.
39. Figure 2.25 Structure of a weft knitted fabric.
40. Figure 2.26 A warp knitting machine.
41. Figure 2.27 Structure of a warp knitted fabric.
Chapter 03
1. Scheme 3.1 Diazotisation of primary amines to form a diazonium salt.
2. Scheme 3.2 Diazo coupling to form an azo dye.
3. Scheme 3.3 Coupling reaction under acid and alkaline conditions.
4. Scheme 3.4 Synthesis of anthraquinone by oxidation of anthracene.
5. Figure 3.1 Electronic configurations of states of chromium.
6. Figure 3.2 Relationship between migrating power and wet fastness properties of acid dyes.
7. Scheme 3.5 Nucleophilic substitution and nucleophilic addition reactions of α‐bromoacrylamido reactive dyes with protein fibres.
8. Scheme 3.6 Nucleophilic substitution reaction of chlorodifluoropyrimidine reactive dyes with protein fibres.
9. Scheme 3.7 Nucleophilic addition reaction of vinyl sulphone reactive dyes with protein fibres.
10. Scheme 3.8 Intramolecular hydrogen bonding in a vat dye molecule.
11. Scheme 3.9 Formation of a sulphuric ester of a leuco vat dye.
12. Figure 3.3 General structure of a fibre‐reactive dye.
13. Scheme 3.10 Nucleophilic substitution reaction of chlorotriazinyl reactive dyes with cellulosic fibres.
14. Scheme 3.11 Nucleophilic addition reaction of vinyl sulphone reactive dyes with cellulosic fibres.
15. Scheme 3.12 Synthesis of C.I. Sulphur Black 1.
Chapter 04
1. Scheme 4.1 Adsorption of hydrogen ions by protein fibres.
2. Scheme 4.2 Adsorption of dye anions by protein fibres under acid conditions.
3. Figure 4.1 Dyeing profile for the application of acid dyes to wool. 1: Add Na₂SO₄.10H₂O, 5–10% owf. 2: Add dyes. 3: Boil. 4: Rinse.
4. Scheme 4.3 Adsorption of dichromate ions by wool under acid conditions.
5. Scheme 4.4 Reduction of adsorbed dichromate ions by wool under acid conditions.
6. Figure 4.2 Change in shade of C.I. Mordant Blue 9 during after‐chroming.
7. Figure 4.3 Dyeing cycle for application of reactive dyes to wool.
8. Figure 4.4 Typical dyeing profiles for the three classes of direct dyes.
9. Figure 4.5 On‐tone build‐up of a trichromatic mixture of direct dyes belonging to the same class.
10. Scheme 4.5 Chemistry of vat dyeing – vatting to generate the soluble leuco form and subsequent oxidation back to the parent insoluble dye.
11. Scheme 4.6 Vatting of indigo.
12. Scheme 4.7 Oxidation of sodium dithionite during vat dyeing process.
13. Figure 4.6 Typical dyeing profiles for reactive dyes on cellulosic fibres.
14. Scheme 4.8 Reduction reaction of sulphur dyes.
15. Scheme 4.9 Mechanism of adsorption of disperse dyes into hydrophobic fibres.
16. Figure 4.7 Relationship between sublimation temperature and dyeing properties.
17. Figure 4.8 Schematic representation of the pad‐Thermosol method.
18. Figure 4.9 Dyeing profiles of (a) groups 1 and 2 dyes and (b) group 3 dyes.
19. Scheme 4.10 Protonation of amino end groups in nylon fibres under acid conditions.
20. Scheme 4.11 Reaction of chlorotriazinyl reactive dyes with nylon fibres by nucleophilic substitution.
21. Scheme 4.12 Reaction of vinyl sulphone reactive dyes with polyamide fibres by nucleophilic addition.
22. Scheme 4.13 Ion‐exchange mechanism of dyeing acrylic fibres with basic (cationic) dyes.
23. Figure 4.10 Schematic diagram of a conical pan dyeing machine.
24. Figure 4.11 Nine cages, each containing five bump tops, ready to be hoist into the dyeing machine.
25. Figure 4.12 Bump tops after dyeing.
26. Figure 4.13 Cheese packages on rigid plastic formers, after dyeing. In the background are dyed wool tops.
27. Figure 4.14 Packages of wool yarn on the spindles of a package dyeing machine of 900 kg capacity.
28. Figure 4.15 Loading a package dyeing machine.
29. Figure 4.16 Horizontal loading package dyeing machine.
30. Figure 4.17 A radio‐frequency drying machine.
31. Figure 4.18 Schematic diagram of a Hussong hank dyeing machine.
32. Figure 4.19 Small‐scale hank dyeing machine.
33. Figure 4.20 Winch dyeing machine for multiple lengths of fabric.
34. Figure 4.21 Schematic diagram of a jig dyeing machine.
35. Figure 4.22 High‐pressure jig dyeing machine.
36. Figure 4.23 Sectional diagram of a high‐temperature beam dyeing machine.
37. Figure 4.24 Jet dyeing machines.
38. Figure 4.25 Principle of the soft‐flow jet dyeing machine.
39. Figure 4.26 Schematic diagram of a side‐paddle garment dyeing machine. (a) Top view. (b) Side view.
40. Figure 4.27 Rotary drum garment dyeing machine.
41. Figure 4.28 Principle of pad mangle operation: (a) two‐bowl mangle, (b) three‐bowl mangle.
42. Figure 4.29 Phase diagram for carbon dioxide.
43. Figure 4.30 DyeCoo scCO₂ beam dyeing machines installed at Yeh Group factory in Thailand.
Chapter 05
1. Scheme 5.1 Conversion of starch to British gum showing increased branching of the polymer chains following conversion.
2. Figure 5.1 Print screen registration.
3. Figure 5.2 Galvano rotary screen construction.
4. Figure 5.3 Etched grooves on a copper roller.
5. Figure 5.4 Engraved cells and depth of shade on a copper roller.
6. Figure 5.5 The discharging of the background colour during discharge printing.
7. Figure 5.6 Example of an illuminated discharge print.
8. Figure 5.7 Schematic of a flat screen printing machine. Rollers 1 and 2 maintain the motion of the blanket. Roller 3 is a pressure roller. Roller 4 applies adhesive to the blanket. Roller 5 is the blanket washer.
9. Figure 5.8 Commercial flat screen printing.
10. Figure 5.9 Cross‐sectional diagram of a rotary screen.
11. Figure 5.10 Commercial rotary screen printing.
12. Figure 5.11 Diagram of a two‐colour roller printer. A, pressure bowl (impression cylinder); B, endless printing blanket; C, back grey; D, fabric being printed; E, engraved printing cylinder; F, furnishing roller; G, colour box; H, colour doctor; K, lint doctor.
13. Figure 5.12 Continuous transfer printing.
14. Figure 5.13 Continuous ink jet printing system.
15. Figure 5.14 Diagram of a thermal ink jet printing head.
16. Figure 5.15 Diagram of a piezo ink jet printing head.
17. Figure 5.16 Digital ink jet printing.
Chapter 06
1. Figure 6.1 Transfer of dye molecules from dye solution into a fibre. A: Transfer of molecules to the fibre surface. B: Adsorption of dye molecules at the fibre surface. C: Diffusion of dye molecules into the fibre matrix.
2. Figure 6.2 Transport of dye from bulk solution to interior of a fibre.
3. Figure 6.3 Diffusion of dye into a fibre from an infinite dyebath.
4. Figure 6.4 Diffusion of dye molecules into fibrous substrates. (a) and (b): pore model, (c) and (d): segmental‐mobility model.
5. Figure 6.5 Disruption of molecular stacking due to steric hindrance by bulky sulphonate groups.
6. Figure 6.6 Overlapping structures of dye molecules in aggregates.
7. Figure 6.7 Effect of dye aggregation on Beer’s law plots.
8. Figure 6.8 Absorbance spectrum of a dye forming a dimer at high concentrations.
9. Figure 6.9 Effect of salt concentration on dye aggregation.
10. Figure 6.10 Effect of temperature on the aggregation of C.I. Direct Blue 1.
11. Figure 6.11 The concentration gradient.
12. Figure 6.12 Rate of dyeing curve and time of half‐dyeing.
13. Figure 6.13 Illustration of a situation in which two different dyes of different build‐up properties have the same t_1/2 values.
14. Figure 6.14 Effect of temperature on dyebath exhaustion.
15. Figure 6.15 Ionic attractions between dyes and fibres. (a) Wool or nylon fibre. (b) Acrylic fibre.
16. Figure 6.16 Polar forces of attraction. (a) Dipole–dipole attraction, (b) dipole‐induced dipole attraction.
17. Figure 6.17 The Nernst isotherm.
18. Figure 6.18 The Freundlich isotherm.
19. Figure 6.19 The Langmuir isotherm.
20. Figure 6.20 Distribution of co‐ions and counter‐ions at a cellulose fibre surface. (a) Helmholtz model, (b) Gouy–Chapman model, (c) Stern model.
21. Figure 6.21 (a) Concentration of ions at a cellulosic fibre surface, (b) decrease in the zeta potential ξ on moving away from the fibre surface.
22. Figure 6.22 Attractive and repulsive forces between a cellulosic fibre and an anionic dye molecule.
23. Figure 6.23 Distribution of ions near a cellulosic fibre surface, in the case of unimolecular adsorption.
24. Figure 6.24 Distribution of sodium, chloride and dye ions on either side of a semipermeable membrane at equilibrium.
25. Figure 6.25 Diffuse adsorption of anionic dye ions on cellulose fibres.
26. Figure 6.26 Distribution of ions in an anionic dye/fibre system giving diffuse adsorption.
27. Figure 6.27 Distribution of ions in unimolecular adsorption, 3‐phase model.
28. Figure 6.28 Dye adsorption at specific sites in a fibre.
Chapter 07
1. Figure 7.1 Additive colour mixing – mixing red, green and blue lights.
2. Figure 7.2 Subtractive colour mixing.
3. Figure 7.3 The electromagnetic spectrum.
4. Figure 7.4 Sensitivity of the eye to visible light.
5. Figure 7.5 (a) The colour circle; (b) the colour solid.
6. Figure 7.6 Structure of the Munsell Book of Color.
7. Figure 7.7 The Munsell hue circle, showing the five principle and five secondary hues of hue pages 5 and 10 (the 2.5 and 7.5 hue pages are omitted).
8. Figure 7.8 Diagram of a sample page from the Munsell Book of Color (in the Munsell book the neutral samples, where Chroma = 0, are not shown to avoid unnecessary duplication; instead they are mounted on a separate card).
9. Figure 7.9 The viewing geometry.
10. Figure 7.10 Spectral power distributions of tungsten and average daylight.
11. Figure 7.11 Spectral power distribution of a normal fluorescent light.
12. Figure 7.12 Spectral power distribution of a white LED source.
13. Figure 7.13 CIE recommended illuminating/viewing geometries for the measurement of reflectance by spectrophotometers.
14. Figure 7.14 Measurement of reflectance with the specular component of reflection either included (left) or excluded (right).
15. Figure 7.15 Spectral reflectance curves of typical white, grey and black colours.
16. Figure 7.16 Spectral reflectance curves of typical chromatic colours.
17. Figure 7.17 Measured spectral reflectance curves of fluorescent colours used in high visibility clothing.
18. Figure 7.18 Measured spectral reflectance curves of white cotton fabrics.
19. Figure 7.19 Diagram of the horizontal cross section of the human eye.
20. Figure 7.20 Principle of additive colour mixing to match spectral light.
21. Figure 7.21 Results of colour‐matching wavelengths of visible light using real [R], [G], [B] primaries and location of the [X], [Y], [Z] imaginary primaries.
22. Figure 7.22 10° standard observer colour‐matching values.
23. Figure 7.23 Chromaticity diagram, 10° standard observer.
24. Figure 7.24 Reflectance curves of C.I. Acid Blue 40 applied to wool at different depths of shade.
25. Figure 7.25 (a) % Reflectance plotted against concentration (% o.w.f.) of C.I. Acid Blue 40 on wool, at wavelengths of minimum (480 nm) and maximum (620 nm) absorption of light; (b) corresponding graphs for the Kubelka–Munk function of reflectance (K/S) plotted against concentration of dye, o.w.f.
26. Figure 7.26 Dye colour (CIE a*,b*) map for selected vat dyes on cotton. A: C.I. Vat Yellow 2; B: C.I. Vat Orange 7; C: C.I. Vat Orange 17; D: C.I. Vat Brown 30; E: C.I. Vat Red 14; F: C.I. Vat Red 1; G: C.I. Vat Green 30; H: C.I. Vat Green 1; I: C.I. Vat Blue 6; J: C.I. Vat Violet 21.
27. Figure 7.27 Calculation of colour difference, ΔE between a standard and a batch. ΔE² = c² + d², and since d² = a² + b², ΔE² = c² + a² + b².
28. Figure 7.28 Application of Pythagoras theorem to three‐dimensional X, Y, Z colour space.
29. Figure 7.29 The CIELAB colour space.
30. Figure 7.30 Tolerance limits of acceptability in CIELAB colour space.
31. Figure 7.31 Dimensions of the tolerance ellipsoid around a standard colour.
32. Figure 7.32 Reflectance curves of a metameric pair of grey colours.
33. Figure 7.33 SDC Metameric samples.
34. Figure 7.34 Using a colour‐difference formula as a metameric index.
35. Figure 7.35 The ‘555’ system of shade sorting.
36. Figure 7.36 A glass cell for solution colour measurement. For most measurements a cell path length of 1 cm is used.
37. Figure 7.37 Schematic diagram of a double‐beam recording spectrophotometer.
38. Figure 7.38 Absorbance curves for solutions of C.I. Acid Red 249, at the concentrations indicated.
39. Figure 7.39 Beer’s law plot for solutions of C.I. Acid Red 249 at 525 nm.
Chapter 08
1. Figure 8.1 Staining of adjacent fibres during washing.
2. Figure 8.2 Grey scales: (top) the scale used to assess staining and (bottom) the scale used for the assessment of colour change in the sample.
3. Figure 8.3 The Hilfstypen series of standard depths.
4. Figure 8.4 Society of Dyers and Colourists standard depths.
5. Figure 8.5 Example of light fastness testing of an orange coloured fabric (top) and blue wool standards for assessment of fading (bottom).

Titles in the Society of Dyers and Colourists – John Wiley Series

An Introduction to Textile Coloration

Principles and Practice

Society of Dyers and Colourists

Preface