Title page
Copyright page
Table of Contents
Dedication
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
1 Introduction
1.1 Historical Background
1.2 General Properties
1.3 Macromolecular Structure of Polymers
1.4 Molecular Weight
1.5 Arrangement of Polymer Molecules
1.5.1 Thermoplastic Polymers
1.5.2 Amorphous Thermoplastics
1.5.3 Semi-Crystalline Thermoplastics
1.5.4 Thermosets and Crosslinked Elastomers
1.6 Copolymers and Polymer Blends
1.7 Polymer Additives
1.7.1 Plasticizers
1.7.2 Flame Retardants
1.7.3 Stabilizers
1.7.4 Antistatic Agents
1.7.5 Fillers
1.7.6 Blowing Agents
1.8 Plastics Recycling
1.9 The Plastics and Rubber Industries
1.10 Polymer Processes
2 Mechanical Behavior of Polymers
2.1 Viscoelastic Behavior of Polymers
2.1.1 Stress Relaxation
2.1.2 Time-Temperature Superposition
2.2 The Short-Term Tensile Test
2.2.1 Elastomers
2.2.2 Thermoplastic Polymers
2.3 Long-Term Tests
2.3.1 Isochronous and Isometric Creep Plots
2.3.2 Creep Rupture
2.4 Dynamic Mechanical Tests
2.5 Mechanical Behavior of Filled and Reinforced Polymers
2.6 Impact Strength
2.7 Fatigue
2.8 Weathering
3 Melt Rheology
3.1 Introduction to Rheology
3.1.1 Shear Thinning Behavior of Polymers
3.1.2 Normal Stresses in Shear Flow
3.1.3 Deborah Number
3.1.4 Rheology of Curing Thermosets
3.1.5 Suspension Rheology
3.1.6 Viscoelastic Flow Models
3.2 Rheometry
3.2.1 The Melt Flow Indexer
3.2.2 The Capillary Viscometer
3.2.3 The Cone-and-Plate Rheometer
4 Extrusion
4.1 Pumping
4.2 The Plasticating Extruder
4.2.1 The Solids Conveying Zone
4.2.2 The Melting Zone
4.2.3 The Metering Zone
4.3 Extrusion Dies
4.3.1 Sheeting Dies
4.3.2 Tubular Dies
5 Mixing
5.1 Distributive Mixing
5.2 Dispersive Mixing
5.2.1.1 Break-Up of Particulate Agglomerates
5.2.2 Break-Up of Fluid Droplets
5.3 Mixing Devices
5.3.1 Banbury Mixer
5.3.2 Mixing in Single Screw Extruders
5.3.3 Static Mixers
5.3.4 Cokneader
5.3.5 Twin Screw Extruders
6 Injection Molding
6.1 The Injection Molding Cycle
6.2 The Injection Molding Machine
6.2.1 The Plasticating and Injection Unit
6.2.2 The Clamping Unit
6.2.3 The Mold Cavity
6.3 Special Injection Molding Processes
6.3.1 Multi-Component Injection Molding
6.3.2 Co-Injection Molding
6.3.3 Gas-Assisted Injection Molding (GAIM)
6.3.4 Injection-Compression Molding
6.3.5 Reaction Injection Molding (RIM)
6.3.6 Liquid Silicone Rubber Injection Molding
6.4 Computer Simulation in Injection Molding
6.4.1 Mold Filling Simulation
6.4.2 Orientation Predictions
6.4.3 Shrinkage and Warpage Predictions
7 Additive Manufacturing
7.1 Vat Polymerization Processes
7.1.1 Stereolithography (SLA)
7.1.2 Solid Ground Curing (SGC)
7.1.3 Continuous Liquid Interface Production (CLIP)
7.2 Powder Bed Fusion
7.2.1 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
7.2.2 Multi Jet Fusion (MJF)
7.2.3 Selective Heat Sintering (SHS)
7.3 Material Extrusion
7.4 Material Jetting
7.4.1 Wax Jetting
7.4.2 Polymer Jetting
7.5 Sheet Lamination Processes
7.5.1 Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
7.5.2 Automated Tape Layup (ATL) and Automated Fiber Placement (AFP)
7.6 Binder Jetting
7.7 Indirect Additive Manufacturing
7.7.1 Wax Patterns for Casting
7.7.2 Binder Jetting for Casting
7.7.3 Additive Manufacturing for Molds
8 Other Plastics Processes
8.1 Fiber Spinning
8.2 Film Production
8.2.1 Cast Film Extrusion
8.2.2 Film Blowing
8.3 Blow Molding
8.3.1 Extrusion Blow Molding
8.3.2 Injection Blow Molding
8.4 Thermoforming
8.5 Calendering
8.6 Coating
8.7 Processing Reactive Polymers
8.8 Compression Molding
8.9 Foaming
8.10 Rotational Molding
8.11 Welding
9 Transport Phenomena in Polymer Processing
9.1 Dimensional Analysis and Scaling
9.1.1 Dimensional Analysis
9.1.2 Scaling and Similarity
9.2 Balance Equations
9.2.1 The Mass Balance or Continuity Equation
9.2.2 The Material or Substantial Derivative
9.2.3 The Momentum Balance or Equation of Motion
9.2.4 The Energy Balance or Equation of Energy
9.3 Model Simplification
9.3.1 Reduction in Dimensionality
9.3.2 Lubrication Approximation
9.4 Simple Models in Polymer Processing
9.4.1 Pressure Driven Flow of a Newtonian Fluid through a Slit
9.4.2 Flow of a Power Law Fluid in a Straight Circular Tube (Hagen-Poiseuille Equation)
9.4.3 Volumetric Flow Rate of a Power Law Fluid in Axial Annular Flow
9.4.4 Radial Flow between Two Parallel Discs – Newtonian Model
9.4.5 Cooling or Heating in Polymer Processing
9.5 Mechanics of Particulate Solids
9.5.1 Adhesive Forces and Flowability
9.5.2 Flowability and the Yield Locus
9.5.3 Momentum Balance and Constitutive Equations for Particulate Solids
9.5.4 Friction, Compaction, and Density Distribution
10 Modeling Polymer Processes
10.1 Single Screw Extrusion – Isothermal Flow Problems
10.1.1 Newtonian Flow in the Metering Section of a Single Screw Extruder
10.1.2 Cross Channel Flow in a Single Screw Extruder
10.1.3 Newtonian Isothermal Screw and Die Characteristic Curves
10.2 Extrusion Dies – Isothermal Flow Problems
10.2.1 End-Fed Sheeting Die
10.2.2 Coat-Hanger Die
10.2.3 Extrusion Die with Variable Die Land Thicknesses
10.2.4 Fiber Spinning
10.2.5 Wire Coating Die
10.3 Processes That Involve Membrane Stretching
10.3.1 Film Blowing
10.3.2 Thermoforming
10.4 Calendering – Isothermal Flow Problems
10.4.1 Newtonian Model of Calendering
10.4.2 Shear Thinning Model of Calendering
10.4.3 Calender Fed with a Finite Sheet Thickness
10.5 Injection Molding – Isothermal Flow Problems
10.5.1 Balancing the Runner System in Multi-Cavity Injection Molds
10.5.2 Radial Flow between Two Parallel Discs
10.6 Non-Isothermal Flows
10.6.1 Non-Isothermal Shear Flow
10.6.2 Non-Isothermal Pressure Flow through a Slit
10.7 Melting
10.7.1 Melting and Solidification Time
10.7.2 Melting with Drag Flow Melt Removal
10.7.3 Melting Zone in a Plasticating Single Screw Extruder
10.7.4 Melting Inside a Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) Nozzle 3
10.8 Curing Reactions during Processing
10.9 Estimating Injection Pressure and Clamping Force
Tim A. Osswald
Understanding Polymer Processing
Processes and Governing Equations
2nd Edition
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| Dedication |
In Erinnerung an meinen Onkel Professor Dr.-Ing. Hans Victor, der mir im Juni 1973 zum ersten Mal einen Computer zeigte und der mich dazu inspirierte, einer akademischen Karriere zu folgen.
| Preface to the Second Edition |
This book evolved from Hanser Publishers’ textbook Polymer Processing Fundamentals, which was revised under the title Understanding Polymer Processing. It has now been almost twenty years since the first book appeared, and six years since the latter was published. The last edition of this book has been adopted by several universities in North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Africa as a textbook to introduce engineering students to polymer processing. The changes and additions that were introduced in this edition are based on suggestions from these professors and their students, my own teaching experience, and suggestions from my students, as well as changes that have occurred in the industry in the past few years. Perhaps the biggest addition is an additional chapter on additive manufacturing.
With this edition, the author owes his gratitude to Dr. Mark Smith of Hanser Publishers for editing the book and catching problems and inconsistencies throughout, and Jörg Strohbach for all his assistance with typesetting and template issues. I am grateful to Tobias Mattner for his superb job at re-drawing all the figures and for his suggestions on how to make many of the figures more understandable. A special thanks to Dr. Dominik Rietzel and Martin Friedrich for co-authoring Chapter 7, Additive Manufacturing. Their experience and input on the entire additive manufacturing field and technology was very valuable. Thank you Diane for—as always—serving as a sounding board and advisor during this project, Palitos for your interest in this field, and Rudi for changing things up a bit.
Summer 2017
Tim A. Osswald
| Preface to the First Edition |
This book provides the background for an understanding of the wide field of polymer processing. It is divided into three parts to give the engineer or student sufficient knowledge of polymer materials, polymer processing and modeling. The book is intended for the person who is entering the plastics manufacturing industry, as well as a textbook for students taking an introductory course in polymer processing.
Understanding Polymer Processing is based on the 12-year-old Hanser Publishers book Polymer Processing Fundamentals, as well as lecture notes from a 7-week polymer processing course taught at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
The first three chapters of this book cover essential information required for the understanding of polymeric materials, from their molecule to their mechanical and rheological behavior. The next four chapters cover the major polymer processes, such as extrusion, mixing, injection molding, thermoforming, compression molding, rotomolding, and more. Here, the underlying physics of each process is presented without complicating the reading with complex equations and concepts, however, helping the reader understand the basic plastics manufacturing processes. The last two chapters present sufficient background to enable the reader to carry out process scaling and to solve back-of-the-envelope polymer processing models.
I cannot possibly acknowledge everyone who helped in the preparation of this manuscript. First, I would like to thank all the students in my polymer processing course who, in the past two decades, have endured my experimenting with new ideas. I am also grateful to my polymer processing colleagues who taught the introductory polymer processing course before me: Ronald L. Daggett, Lew Erwin, Jay Samuels and Jeroen Rietveld. I thank Nicole Brostowitz for adding color to some of the original graphs, and to Katerina Sánchez for introducing and organizing the equations and for proofreading the final manuscript. I would like to thank Professor Juan Pablo Hernández-Ortiz, of the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellín, for his input in Part III of this book. Special thanks to Wolfgang Cohnen for allowing me to use his photograph of Coyote Buttes used to exemplify the Deborah number in Chapter 3. My gratitude to Dr. Christine Strohm, my editor at Hanser Publishers, for her encouragement, support and patience. Thanks to Steffen Jörg at Hanser Publishers for his help and for putting together the final manuscript. Above all, I thank my wife Diane and my children Palitos and Rudi for their continuous interest in my work, their input and patience.
Summer of 2010
Tim A. Osswald
| 1 | Introduction |