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Author: Stephan Beissel

Translation: Chris Murray

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ISBN: 978-1-78310-759-9

Editor’s Note

Out of respect to the author’s original work, this text has not been corrected or updated, particularly regarding attribution, dates, and the current locations of works. These were uncertain at the time of the text’s first publication, and sometimes remain so to this day. The information in the captions, however, has been updated.

Stephan Beissel

Fra Angelico

Contents

Fra Angelico’s Early Training and his Work in Cortona and Perugia

Stay and Work in Fiesole

Fra Angelico’s Stay in Florence, and his Murals at the Convento di San Marco

Outside Influences

The Paintings of the Last Judgment and their Relationship with Dante’s Poetry

The Virgin Mary in the Paintings of Fra Angelico

Works in Rome and Orvieto

The Final Years and Death of Fra Angelico

Bibliography

List of Artists

List of Illustrations

Notes

1. Annunciatory Angel, 1450-1455.

Tempera and gold on wood panel, 33 x 27 cm.

The Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit.

2. The Annunciation (depicted in an historied
initial “R”, detail from a missel), c. 1423.

Biblioteca del convento di San Marco, Florence.

Fra Angelico’s Early Training and
his Work in Cortona and Perugia

At the beginning of the fifteenth century, the Dominican convent of Fiesole had a lively intellectual atmosphere. The convent was founded in 1406 by the Blessed Giovanni di Dominici Bacchini, (who later became the Archbishop of Ragusa and, in 1419, a cardinal,) in order to reestablish the former discipline and strictness of the Dominican order in the spirit of Saint Dominic. Members of the observant monasteries were expected to consecrate themselves to the saving of souls not only through study, science, and preaching, but also through applied artistic labour. Exiled from Venice, Giovanni arrived in Città di Castello near Arezzo in 1399. From there he was summoned to preach in the cathedral of Florence for Lent. San Lapo Mazzei wrote to a friend after hearing one of Giovanni’s sermons, and summarized his impressions in the following terms, “I was at Santa Liparata (the cathedral) where a Dominican friar was supposed to preach, and where he did indeed preach. I assure you that I have never heard a sermon like it, nor been so moved by so much eloquence… Everyone cried or seemed to be struck dumb and in a stupor listening to the pure Truth… He spoke of the Incarnation of God in a manner that ripped the soul from one’s body, compelling everyone present to chase after him.”[1]

Day by day, the morals of the populace purified, and the Dominici’s influence grew. In 1405, the Bishop of Fiesole gave him the land needed to build a convent and a church, and their construction was begun immediately. In 1406, religious zeal entered the establishment in the form of thirteen monks. Soon, many of the most fervent novices came to the convent in hopes of entering the Order. In 1405, the sixteen-year-old Antoninus, who would later become the bishop of Florence, († 1459), presented himself to Dominici. When asked about the nature of his studies, Antoninus showed a marked preference for canon law. Dominici responded that in the Dominican Order, novices were only admitted to this sort of study if they had already learned the Decretum Gratiani by heart. “Go then my son,” said Dominici, “And learn them. Once you know it, you can ask for admission in complete confidence.”[2]

The young Antoninus left and returned. Once Antoninus was admitted to the Order, the Father Superior sent him to Cortona, where the Blessed Lorenzo di Ripafratta had directed the novitiates of the Observant Dominicans since 1409. In 1408, two brothers knocked on the door of Fiesole’s convent, also requesting admission. The elder of the two, Guido (Guidolino), was twenty-one years old. The younger was only eighteen. Their father, Pietro, lived in village near the fortified castle of Vicchio, situated between Dicomano and Borgo San Lorenzo in the Tuscan region of Mugello, not far from where Giotto was born. Undoubtedly, these young men were also asked about their previous education, and were only admitted into the house of the Observant Dominicans once they had proven their aptitude. It so happened that the older brother had real talent as a painter, and that the younger brother was a calligrapher. At that time, Dominici was no longer in Fiesole, for in 1406, the Republic of Florence had entrusted him with a mission to Rome. Once Dominici arrived in the Eternal City, Pope Gregory XII became very attached to him. On May 12, 1409, he made Dominici a cardinal. Dominici’s successor in Fiesole gave a warm welcome to the two hopeful Dominicans; he gave them habits and named the elder Fra Giovanni (Petri del Mugello) and the younger Fra Benedetto (Petri del Mugello). He then sent them to Cortona, where as novices they were to live a life of penitence and prayer for one year. In order to understand the novitiate and the spirit that would later drive Fra Giovanni (Angelico), this passage by Dominici seems particularly apt: “I do not consider to be a good novice he who always walks with lowered eyes, who recites a long series of Psalms, who never makes mistakes when singing in the choir, who is silent and lives in peace with his brothers; nor he who loves his cell and chastises his body with discipline, who often fasts and carefully avoids contact with the outside world, giving himself over to the habits of ascetic life, and viewed by the beginners as saintliness itself. All of this is not enough. I consider a good novice to be he who perfectly, and with all of his strength, carries out the legitimate will of his superiors.” Rösler adds, “The complete renunciation of the world and oneself, the fulfillment of all of the rule’s prescriptions, the active and fervent love of God and one’s neighbor with one’s eyes always fixed on the model left by Jesus, the active desire for union with Christ; these are the foundations of a perfect life in the footsteps of Saint Dominic.”[3]

3. Simone Martini, Maestà (detail), 1317. Fresco.

Sala del Mappamondo, Palazzo Pubblico, Siena.

4. Duccio di Buoninsegna, Maestà (detail).

Tempera on wood panel, 370 x 450 cm.

Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Siena.

5. The Coronation of the Virgin, c. 1420.

Tempera on wood panel, 28.3 x 38.4 cm.

The Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland.

6. The Ascension (one of 35 paintings for the Silver Treasury
of Santissima Annunziata), c. 1450. Tempera on

wood panel, 39 x 39 cm. Museo di San Marco, Florence.

The life and work of Fra Giovanni prove that the teachings of his novitiate always served as his rule. Consequently, he completed the first period of his monastic education with success. A beautiful anecdote from Vasari reveals just how much Fra Angelico, even in old age, kept a novice’s simplicity and candor. Pope Nicholas V held Fra Giovanni in high esteem, and finding the artist tired, almost exhausted by his work, offered him a dish of meat to restore his energy. Unfortunately, this took place on a day when the Dominicans of the recent Reform were forbidden from eating meat. The artist thanked the sovereign Pontiff, and excused himself due to the rule of his Order, which did not allow him to eat such food without the authorisation of his superior. He had forgotten that an offer made by the Pope implied permission from the highest authority and rendered his superior superfluous. This story attests to the extreme conscientiousness of Fra Giovanni. Vasari gives another example of his submission: “He was never angry with his fellow Dominicans; he responded with great affability to all who asked for his work, requesting they first come to an agreement with his superiors. For him, good will was not a weakness.” He did not work or act without the permission of his superiors, and all that he received for his work went into their hands. In studying the life of this artist, it is necessary to never forget the severe discipline of his novitiate, which alone allowed him to understand and estimate his works in all their value. The natural goodness of Fra Angelico and the mystical tendencies of his century are not enough to explain his images. “Without Dominici, there would have been no Dominican convent in Fiesole, probably no San Marco in Florence, and perhaps no Fra Angelico.”[4]

After their novitiate, the two brothers pronounced the vows that would perpetually tie them to the Dominican Order in Cortona. In 1408, they returned for some time to Fiesole, but in 1409 all the monks were forced to leave the convent and its picturesque setting. Dominici, and his followers in the Observant Dominican Order refused to recognise Pope Alexander V, who had been irregularly elected by the Council of Pisa. The Dominicans wanted to remain faithful to Gregory XII, the true leader of the Church with whom they had already sided against Benedict XIII. The Bishop of Fiesole, a member of the Council of Pisa and faithful to Alexander V, forced the monks into exile and confiscated their possessions. Most of the friars of Fiesole found refuge in the neighboring Dominican convent of Foligno where they stayed until 1414, when an outbreak of plague forced them to flee again, this time reestablishing themselves in Cortona. It is, nevertheless, possible that the Friars Petri del Mugello went to Cortona not long after taking their vows in order to study philosophy and theology with the other young monks (including Fra Antoninus), in preparation to be ordained as priests. Nothing is known of their stay in Cortona during this period, but it is probable that they lived there, with short interruptions, during the eleven years from 1407 to 1418. Fra Benedetto pursued his studies in theology and philosophy further than Giovanni, and his progress allowed him to become a long-standing sub prior in Florence, which, according to the rules of the Order, was only possible for theologians and preachers of merit. His elder brother, Giovanni, followed the desires of his superiors and did not dwell long on his studies. His undeniable talent allowed him to be admitted to the priesthood after a short period of preparation, after which he consecrated himself entirely to art. This must have met with little opposition, given that Dominici was a great admirer of painting. Dominici’s letters reveal that he not only wrote beautiful books, ornamenting the initial letters, but that he encouraged the monks of Corpus Domini in Venice to create and paint manuscripts. In his eyes, the arts and sciences were effective means of seeking and spreading the Faith. It was with his paintbrush that Fra Angelico was to preach the truth, as other Dominicans would do with their quills, or from the heights of their pulpits. The exile from Florence was, in reality, a providential blessing. In Florence, with its community of artists branching off in new directions, it is doubtful that the young monk would have so firmly maintained and developed the serious and pious tendencies that corresponded with the aspirations of his soul. His exile led him to one of Italy’s most conservative religious centres. He lived between Siena and Assisi, about sixty kilometres from both of these towns. The road to Assisi passed through Perugia, and a visit to this town, with its many Dominican establishments, would have been simple. Angelico doubtlessly visited and revisited Siena, whose churches and monuments were resplendent with examples of the city’s admirable school of painting. At the gates of the city, suggestive frescoes greeted the wandering monk. Who better than Angelico was prepared by the aspirations of his soul to contemplate and venerate this serious and powerful Virgin, the “Madonna of the Large Eyes,” (La Maestà) which a century before (1310) was carried in a solemn procession to the cathedral where she shone ever after on the main altar? Today, this grandiose painting has unfortunately been moved from the cathedral to the Museo dell’Opera del Duomo. In it, Duccio di Buoninsegna combined the accumulated achievements of the painters and miniaturists of Italy and the Byzantine Empire. On the front of the altarpiece appears Mary, majestic upon her throne, holding the Holy Infant, surrounded by twenty angels and the figures of ten saints. Half-length paintings of the apostles were framed by the niches of the altar’s predella and are today placed above the principal painting.[5]

7. The Flight into Egypt (one of 35 paintings for the
Silver Treasury of Santissima Annunziata), c. 1450.

Tempera on wood panel, 39 x 39 cm.

Museo di San Marco, Florence.

The reverse side of this altarpiece presents twenty scenes from the Passion and the Resurrection of Christ, as well as eighteen scenes from the lives of Jesus and Mary in the predella. Though the influence of tradition and the imitation of Greek artists is noticeable in many of the individual scenes, the altarpiece as a whole is treated with true liberty and shows a markedly Italian influence. The eight angels that immediately surround the Virgin’s throne, lean in and contemplate the holy Child at the centre of the composition with indulgence, abandon, and love. They are no longer the solemn and respectful Byzantine attendants to the throne, but are rather the friends and intimate companions of the Lord and his Holy Mother.

This painting was of great importance to Fra Giovanni, because it shows so many scenes from the life of Christ and Mary, and because it is entirely penetrated by traditional ideas and techniques. In the same way that the best ancient Greek and Roman artists won renown by perfecting and ennobling long-consecrated and generally admitted types, the best Italian artists of the fifteenth century still remained faithful to the fundamental forms of traditional iconography. It was not that they wanted to strictly follow established concepts, but rather that they did not readily break from these traditions without serious motives and consideration. It was only the artists of the sixteenth century that wished to do away with the old forms in a destructive outburst of unmeasured individualism. It is important to study how Fra Angelico assimilated traditional techniques, to what degree he transformed them, and to know how these changes were related to his character and the proposed purpose of his works. He clearly studied the most significant paintings of Duccio, and was influenced by them when he painted the same subjects, though he never copied Duccio slavishly.

Though Fra Angelico might have examined the mature work of Duccio with deference, he probably preferred the large fresco Simone Martini painted for Siena’s Palazzo Pubblico in 1317 (Maestà). Here again the enthroned Virgin is surrounded by angels and saints, yet the painting breathes with more freshness and freedom. Angelico would have been less attracted to the Ambrogio Lorenzetti’s famous allegories in the same building. Angelico was probably not charmed by works of this nature, where speculation seeks to ally itself with emotional fantasy. But he certainly must have admired the still powerful frescoes representing the Death of Mary, her Funeral and her Assumption, that Taddeo di Bartolo had recently finished in the proud Palace of the Republic.

A painting currently held in Munich and attributed to Bartolo (circa 1401), shows the Assumption of the Holy Virgin (The Assumption). It contains elements that would be seen later in Fra Angelico’s paintings of the Coronation of Mary. A choir of angels singing and playing various musical instruments surrounds the Virgin, while other celestial messengers sound long trumpets in a call to rejoice.

The pleasant and graceful Coronation of Mary in Siena’s town hall, which now most brings to mind Fra Angelico’s work, was painted in 1445 by Sano di Pietro, and did not exist at the time of Fra Angelico’s visit. Sano di Pietro, born in 1406 († 1481), was an only child at the time, and could not have had any contact with Fra Giovanni. If Angelico was probably taken by the works of Simone Martini, he also would have warmed at the sight of Pietro’s paintings depicting the life of Saint Martin at the Church of San Francesco of Assisi. Yet for Angelico, as for all of the church’s visitors, these paintings would have paled in comparison to the masterpieces of Giotto. Giotto’s works prove that it is not the number of motifs that creates a positive effect, but rather, the clear thoughts presented with a limited means of expression. Giotto’s compositions would have confirmed the tastes of an artist in search of precise lines, pure colours, and clear thoughts.

8. Taddeo di Bartolo, The Assumption (triptych), 1401.

Tempera on wood panel, 420 x 525 cm. Duomo, Montepulciano.

9. Ottaviano Nelli di Martino, Madonna del Belvedere, 1404.

Tempera on stone. Santa Maria Nuova, Gubbio.

10. The Virgin and Child Enthroned with Four Angels
(central panel of Guidalotti polyptych), c. 1437.

Tempera on wood panel, 130 x 77 cm.

Galleria Nazionale dell’Umbria, Perugia.

Not far from Cortona can be found the town of Gubbio, where in 1404, Ottaviano Nelli († 1414) had just painted the fresco, Madonna del Belvedere. All of Fra Giovanni’s favorite hues are already found here. Behind the enthroned Mother of God hover two angels holding a robe of honour. Above them, God, the Holy Father, is surrounded by a glory of angels holding the crown destined for Mary’s head. On each side at the bottom of the painting stands a tall angel, one with a lute, one with a violin. In the upper reaches, two small angels play the organ and harp. Mary’s feet rest on a round cushion, and she holds the Child, who rests on her right knee, in both hands. She leans devotedly toward him, asking for the benediction of the donor’s wife, kneeling to the right. An angel with the same attitude seems to commend the donor’s wife to the Madonna. Behind this group rises a tall saint holding a palm frond and a book. The donor kneels to the other side, under the patronage of the hermit Saint Anthony, who is also painted with large proportions, extending his left hand towards the head of his protégé.

“This masterpiece of Ottaviano, a simple assembly of human figures of different proportions juxtaposed on an azure background, gives the joyous impression of a miniature. The superb colour choices are sometimes limited, but their brilliant hues produce an effect that is not at all artificial. The figures, outlined by extremely pure contours, apart from their extremities, are immaterial apparitions dressed in diaphanous clothing that seems to have been woven from spider webs, scattered with flowers, and ornamented with borders of foliage. A few of the faces, particularly Saint Anthony and his protégé, have a calm and solemn look, while Mary and her holy Son welcome the viewer with an expression of lovable serenity. The whole is achieved with care and an irreproachable conscience.”[6]

In that period, Gubbio was rich with such paintings. The painter Martino, Ottaviano’s father, was already working in the town by 1385, surrounded by a circle of artists who followed the same techniques, as well as Ottaviano’s grandfather, the sculptor Mattiolo. A connection between Fra Giovanni and Ottaviano Nelli seems even more likely, because Ottaviano’s brother, Tomasuccio worked for the Dominicans in Gubbio. Nevertheless, one must remember Förster’s very apt remark that, “The art of Fra Angelico has such originality and personality that it could not be derived from another artist. This art is one with the human nature it serves to express. It developed under the beneficial influence of traditional art in general, art which could be found throughout the entire land.”[7]

11. Virgin and Child Enthroned, with Four Saints John
the Baptist, John the Evangelist, Mark and Mary Magdalene
(Cortona triptych), c. 1437. Tempera on wood panel,

218 x 240 cm.Museo Diocesano, Cortona.

12. The Annunciation (Cortona altarpiece with predella), c. 1432-1434.

Tempera on wood panel, 175 x 180 cm. Museo Diocesano, Cortona.

13. Fra Filippo Lippi, The Annunciation, c. 1445.

Tempera on wood panel, 175 x 183 cm. San Lorenzo, Florence.

Only four of Fra Angelico’s paintings, executed in Cortona between 1407 and 1418, can be seen as early works with some degree of certainty. The most important of these is a painting created for his Order’s church (San Domenico) in Cortona, today placed in a chapel near the main altar. Marchese considers it to be one of his fellow Dominican’s best works, and other authors have expressed themselves similarly. Judgments of this nature prove the difficulty in establishing the chronology of Fra Angelico’s works using critical evaluations. With other masters, it is possible to establish successive periods, and often, their best work dates from a period later in their careers. Here is a painting from the beginning of Fra Giovanni’s career that could be considered perfect in its genre. It should be remembered that the artist was born in 1378, took his vows in Cortona at the age of twenty-two, and lived in that town until he was thirty-one. In general, progress in Angelico’s work can only be found in details like the perspective of the background, the style of the architecture, and the costumes.

In the centre of The Cortona Altarpiece Mary is seated on her throne, wearing a blue cloak that almost entirely covers her red gown. The nude Christ Child on her knees holds a deep red rose. To each side of Mary, two angels bring baskets of flowers of shimmering colours. At the foot of the throne, bouquets of roses bloom in magnificent vases. In a separate compartment to the right appear the figures of Saint Mary Magdalene, and Saint Mark. To the left are found Saint John the Baptist, and Saint John the Evangelist. The Crucifixion, with Mary and Saint John, can be seen in the arch above the central painting. In the arches above the four saints can be seen the characters of the Annunciation.

“At the sight of this painting, one cannot help being struck by an impression of springtime freshness. One feels the beating of the young artist’s heart, happy with his creation, and with him, one is elevated to heights of celestial enchantment. Above all, it is the infant Jesus who seems to glow with the light of the morning star, followed by the pairs of angels who fascinate with the softness of their celestial smiles. The predella is also inundated with a beauty one cannot help but admire. The states of the different characters’ souls are expressed with a very delicate feeling. Where he wishes to express the suffering of those mourning the death of Saint Dominic, Angelico pours out his heart with the plentiful treasures of his compassion. He clearly sheds tears of personal mourning in this painting.”[8]

14. Annunciatory Angel, c. 1424. Tempera and

gold on wood panel, 18.1 x 13.5 cm.

Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven.

15. Virgin Annunciate, c. 1424. Tempera and gold on wood panel,

18.1 x 17.8 cm. Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven.

The predella of the altarpiece shows eight scenes from the life of Saint Dominic. It is separated by six dividers between which are seen the figures of saints. Today it is placed in the baptistry near the cathedral (Oratorio del Gesu). Another altarpiece from San Domenico, an Annunciation was also placed in this location. Mary is seated in a loggia, and has dropped onto her lap the open book she was reading. She humbly crosses her hands across her chest in deference. Gabriel has rapidly entered the loggia. Extending his hands before him, he indicates with his right hand, Mary, the object of his mission, and raises his left hand, to remind that the mission was received from Heaven. A banner that comes from his mouth contains the words of the Hail Mary (Ave Maria,) and a dove descends towards Mary. In the background, Adam and Eve can be seen, driven from Paradise, as a contrast to the mystery of the Incarnation. The predella is composed of six scenes from the life of Mary (the Nativity, the Wedding, the Visitation, the Adoration of the Magi, the Presentation in the Temple, and the Death and Funeral of Mary) and her apparition to Saint Reginald.

It is possible that this last composition work was part of the Cortona Altarpiece’s predella. It is more skillfully painted than the Annunciation, which should be considered a first attempt.[9] Above the entrance of San Domenico, Fra Giovanni painted the Madonna and Child between Saint Dominic and Saint Peter Martyr, and the four Evangelists in the vault.

The Dominican church in Perugia once possessed a large altarpiece by Fra Angelico (Mary and Child Flanked by Angels Holding Baskets of Flowers). Few towns show the contrasts and changes brought with the passage of time as Perugia does. Its church, San Domenico, was built in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and then altered to such a great degree in the seventeenth century that its primitive origins are barely visible. The altarpiece was broken up, but the majority of its panels are now found in the Pinoteca Vannuci, whose collection was created with the spoils of the town’s churches and convents placed on the second floor of the massive and robust Palazzo Pubblico. It is true that historians and researchers rejoice in the accumulated resources, the documents, and artworks of Italy’s libraries and museums. Their collections undoubtedly facilitate the consultation of these materials, often very admirably, but this does not diminish or atone the injustice of the church’s losses. Marchese saw fragments of the altarpiece when they were still in the town’s Dominican convent. He considers them to be the first fruits of the master’s work, countering Rio’s opinion that they were painted around 1450. In reality, the paintings of the Perugia Altarpiece are so similar to those of Cortona that it is logical to assign them to the same period.

As in Cortona, angels holding a basket of flowers stand on both sides of Mary’s throne (Illustration). In the outer panels stand the large figures of saints. Two other angels contemplate the scene from behind the throne’s pillars, and on the ground before the throne are three vases of flowers. Here again, the holy Child standing on his Mother’s knee, holds a rose just taken from one of the baskets offered by the angels. In the side tympanums above the altarpiece, Angelico again painted the two characters of the Annunciation, while the predella contains scenes from the legend of Saint Nicholas (Saint Nicholas Saving Three Men Condemned to Execution and The Death of Saint Nicholas, and The Birth of Saint Nicholas, His Vocation, The Gift to Three Young Girls). Two of these paintings are now located in the museum of Perugia, and two others are in the Vatican. The small images of twelve saints, painted on the frame, have suffered considerably, and half of them are destroyed.

16. Virgin Annunciate, 1450-1455. Tempera and

gold on wood panel, 33 x 27 cm.

The Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit.

17. Christ Entering Jerusalem (one of 35 paintings for the
Silver Treasury of Santissima Annunziata), c. 1450.

Tempera on wood panel, 39 x 39 cm.

Museo di San Marco, Florence.

When studying these paintings it is important to remember that Fra Giovanni was an equally talented and remarkable muralist. This is proof that Fra Angelico was not an illuminator who gradually took on larger works. His superiors would have used a miniaturist to illustrate choir-books.

Later, they might have only temporarily asked Angelico to illustrate manuscripts, but no work of this genre can be attributed to him with certainty. It will soon be seen that even though he possessed a naturally delicate technique, he was not a miniaturist. It can be concluded that his true calling started and stayed with larger paintings. It is true that the conscientious finish of his paintings, particularly his predella paintings, which are often reminiscent of miniatures, has easily led scholars to draw erroneous conclusions. It is a small leap to affirm that a painter capable of treating small details with such love and precision must have also created works destined to be examined as closely as the images of precious manuscripts. But opinions of this nature are usually based on studies of paintings from recent centuries. It is too often forgotten that the great masters of the Middle Ages were accustomed to finishing their paintings down to the minute details, and that the paintings themselves were often of exceptionally reduced dimensions. Those who see a miniaturist in Fra Giovanni, based on the precious delicacy of his predella paintings, ought to draw the same conclusion from Duccio’s paintings. On the reverse side of his Maestà altarpieces and their predellas (Christ Entering Jerusalem) the scale of Duccio’s work is much smaller than that of the characters portrayed on the front of the altarpieces. They ought go even further, and classify nearly all of the Italian masters of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries as miniaturists.

In terms of technique, painting on parchment was considerably different from painting on panels or plaster. Miniaturists formed, with calligraphers, a group that was completely distinct from that of painters. This question will be brought up again in deciding whether Fra Benedetto was a miniaturist, and whether he helped his brother paint murals and altarpieces.