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Contents

Introduction

Architecture

A – The Near and Middle East

B – North Africa and Spain

C – Iran and the Persian School

D – The Ottoman School

E – Muslim India

Fine Arts

A – Sculpture

B – Metal Arts

C – Metalwork and Rock Crystals

D – Mosaics

Manufactured Products

A – Ceramics

B – Enamelled Glass

C – Textiles

D – Carpets

The Art of the Book

A – Arab Manuscripts

B – Egyptian Korans

C – Persian Manuscripts

D – Indo-Persian Miniatures

E – Turkish Manuscripts

Conclusion

BIBLIOGRAPHY

List of Illustrations

Introduction

Within a century, the Arab conquests that spread rapidly into the East, North Africa and Spain upset the social fabric of all the subjugated peoples by imposing not only a new religion and organisation, but also new customs and practices. One religion alone orchestrated the spread of a single statute. Although still reeling in the aftermath of barbarian conquests and torn by sectarian conflicts among Christians, the ruined former Roman provinces became the cradle of a new world, the Muslim world, which for centuries was more civilised than most countries in Europe. Since Muhammad had promised his followers that they would possess the kingdoms of the world, the enjoyment of material things was viewed as a gift and a reward, not as a despicable pleasure to be shunned by the faithful. Consequently, Muslim leaders sought to surround themselves with luxury and decorated their cities and palaces. The ostentation of caliphs became proverbial, and throughout their empire imposing monuments sprang up whose opulence and elegance remained legendary in the East.

The Muslim civilisation, forged by the efforts of many different people, was not composed solely of Arabs. Consistent with the models that influenced it and the places where it grew, it also included Greeks, Persians, Syrians, Egyptians, Spaniards and Indians. Considering all origins together, however, Arabs, although never so far accurately defined, unquestionably made up the greatest number. This background notwithstanding, they were able to fuse these greatly diverse elements into one homogeneous blend and build a civilisation that bears the mark of their genius. The art of Felix Arabia, ancient Yemen, cannot be left out of a list of countries that influenced early Islamic art. The primary result of Islamic conquests was a kind of blend of Eastern and Western artistic traditions.

This vast Muslim world, whose pilgrimages to Mecca reflected the nomadic nature of their culture, made persistent efforts towards unification, transmission and mixing of the various traditions in their empire, resulting in a constant evolution of the arts. During periods of peace, the pilgrimage, obligatory for every faithful Muslim, brought together people from various countries. Naturally, people of the same trade preferred to meet together and interact with one another. The trip to Mecca was long and expensive for craftsmen from far-flung countries, and the poorest had to stop and work along the way in order to obtain the necessary resources. During such relatively long stays in the cities, the most assiduous could learn construction techniques and manufacturing skills. Upon returning home, they would try to imitate the new techniques they had seen.

Consequently, the rich and powerful Muslim world established a considerable trade system throughout the Mediterranean, along caravan routes, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf. During long periods of peace, under the great caliphs, the luxury and wealth of individuals facilitated trade. Immense bazaars were set up in every big city, and caravansaries appeared even in the middle of deserts. Islamic maritime art rivalled that of the Byzantine Empire or Italy. This situation was very advantageous to the renewal and proliferation of artistic techniques. The distinction between the splendour of the early centuries of Islam and the barbarism of the Christian world until the crusades is extraordinary.

Minaret of the Great Mosque of Al-Mutawakkil, 848-852.

Height: 50 m. Samarra, Iraq.

Courtyard of the Al-Azhar Mosque, 970-972. Cairo.

Architecture

A – The Near and Middle East

Following a rapid conquest by Amr-ibn-el-As several years after Umar seized Syria, Egypt’s history was thereafter closely linked to Syria’s. Regular contacts between Egypt and Syria resulted in interactions between these two countries and, in most cases, the mutual development of art. In 634, Damascus fell to the Muslims; in 637, Umar entered Jerusalem, and Aleppo and Antioch followed respectively. It is most likely that the monuments of Antioch were inspired by the construction of the Qubbat al-Sakhra in Jerusalem. There was also a renowned domed church in Antioch, dedicated to the Virgin Mary: according to the ancient Muslim writer Macoudi, this church was one the wonders of the world. Nevertheless, the style of these Syro-Egyptian monuments remained similar to the method adopted by architects in the Maghreb until around the close of the 9th century.

The heart of the mosque is the mihrab, a decorative niche in the wall that indicates to worshipers the direction of Mecca, towards which they must turn during prayer; this wall, along with an open courtyard, presents the typical design of early North African mosques. The first type is the mosque with porticos. It has a square central courtyard, with an ablution fountain in the centre; the fountain is shaded by porticos, the one in the east being the furthest away, below which is located the mihrab; this portico is a shaded oratory with parallel naves; next to the mihrab is the minbar, a pulpit for sermons, podiums where readers of the Koran stand and massive pulpits on which the holy book is placed. All the mosques in Cairo followed this plan until the reign of the Ayyubids. After that period, small and even big mosques were often built on the cruciform plan of madrasas or religious seminaries, and later, the Ottoman conquest introduced the plan of great Turkish mosques with domes.

The first mosques were all constructed according to this plan. In effect, the entire length of the whole mihrab wall runs parallel, so to speak, from the point of view of the orientation of worshippers at the time of prayer, to the mihrab itself; it is, thus, the nave that spans the length of the wall that is in actuality the sanctuary. It is therefore to be expected – it actually happened several times – that the enlargement of mosques was carried out with relation to this direction. As a matter of fact, the ceilings or arches of these naves were supported by columns. Ancient columns, their capitals and their bases were therefore used to support these arcades.

Cairo

Rather than the lavishness of materials used, the beauty of early Egyptian mosques sprang from painting, gilding and tapestry hangings. For example, the Tulun Mosque, one of the oldest in Cairo, is made solely of plaster-coated bricks. In Syria, Damascus and Jerusalem, however, the rich decoration does not have similar characteristics: precious marbles, metals and enamel mosaics were used in construction. Marble columns, capitals and bases, marble or mosaic coverings, bronze doors, painted and gilded ceilings, beams covered in sheets of embossed and gilded bronze... all were used both as construction materials and as decoration. It was thus an application of Roman and Byzantine methods, but with an entirely new spirit in the general layout, which was distinctly defined by lavish decoration.

The representation of human figures was not completely banned in early Muslim art. Statues, bas-reliefs and tableaux were frequently seen in the palaces of monarchs or prominent individuals. Unfortunately, all we have are documents that enable us to imagine the likely layout of these edifices: no existing vestiges can hint at the possible features of the palaces of both Ibn Tulun and his son, Khomarouyeh, of which Makrisi provides interesting descriptions.

Introduced in the 13th century, the cruciform plan became so typical that it was used even in small mosques. Syrian influence was already becoming evident in the construction of religious edifices under the Fatimids, and we will find that influence more present in the fortifications of Cairo; the architects who constructed the three large entrances of the Badr El-Gemali compound were from Edessa, and therefore Syrians.

Although the unorthodox features of this eastern influence disappeared when the Ayyubids replaced the Fatimid dynasty in Cairo in the second half of the 12th century, the influence of Syrian methods was becoming common, especially in the construction methods Egypt had adopted. The use of stone, complex devices and multicoloured decorations with marble or coloured stones, both of them of Syrian origin, spread quickly and grew to include not only religious but civil architecture as well.

This influence, which was first felt under the Fatimids and subsequently under the Ayyubids, further increased under the Mameluke-Baharite sultans (from 1250 to 1382) and reached its climax under the Mamelukes (1382-1515).

Turkish conquerors introduced the Ottoman dome-shaped mosque in Cairo to emphasise their control by imposing a stamp on religious edifices. While the conquerors were hailed as supreme caliphs and Muhammad’s assistants by all Sunni or orthodox Muslims, their rule was not absolute: many small mosques in Cairo maintained the traditional design, even after 1516. However, the Ottoman occupation had no effect whatsoever on civil and domestic architecture.

Ablution fountain, 1363.

Sultan Hassan Mosque, Cairo.

Courtyard of the Ibn Tulun Mosque, 876-879.

Cairo.

The Dome of the Rock, 691-692.

Jerusalem.

Jerusalem

The Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem, which is similar to the Umar Mosque, is full of splendour. A former Justinian Basilica, it was reconstructed by Abd al-Malik, destroyed by two earthquakes and rebuilt in 785. Saladin restored it in 1187, according to an inscription, and contributed the beautiful minbar that Noureddin made for the Great Mosque of Aleppo. The mosaics which he used to decorate the sanctuary are, in spite of the period when they were done, similar to those of the Qubbat al-Sakhra and as beautiful.

Mecca

The Kaaba in Mecca, which covers the sacred Black Stone that Muslims believe fell from heaven, has a long narrative history. It is said to have been constructed by Adam, then by Seth, then by Abraham, then by the Amalekites, then in the 7th century by the Korachites under the Copt architect Dokun. After it was destroyed by Yazid, Abdallah Ibn Zobeir rebuilt it. It was again destroyed as part of an order from Abd al-Malik, who, shortly after, reconstructed the porticos; it was from this moment that it went down in history.

Medina

The first mosque in Medina seems to have been merely a square area enclosed by a brick wall, partly shaded by a wooden roof supported by plaster-coated palm tree trunks. A courtyard with porticos and the sanctuary at the far end was a reproduction of ancient Semitic and Phoenician sanctuaries, a prototype of portico mosques. This mosque (Masjid en-Nebi, the prophet’s oratory) was constructed in 707 by El-Walid, who decorated Muhammad’s tomb with faience plates. Later destroyed by an earthquake and fire, it was reconstructed under Kaïl-Bey, probably following the old plan. It follows the plan of ancient mosques with parallel naves; it contains Muhammad’s tomb.

Damascus

The Umayyad Mosque, or Great Mosque of Damascus, is an ancient Christian church dedicated to John the Baptist by Theodosius in 379, and restored by his son Arcadius on the site of an ancient temple that stood in the middle of an immense court, and whose porticos are still partly standing. Upon their entry into Damascus, Muslims used this mosque jointly with Christians; however, the Umayyad caliph El-Yalid devoted it entirely to Muslim worship and, to this effect, slightly altered it.

The upper part of the mosque’s interior has Byzantine-style stanchions with very flat surfaces, a frieze made of white marble and gilded rinceaus (ornamental bands of scrolled foliage) that spread against a background of dark marble that actually brings to mind the Qubbat al-Sakhrah. The piers surmounting the column capitals are like truncated pyramids but more massive than those outside. The ceilings of the transept wings before the most recent destructive fire were made of exposed, overhanging beams; semi-cylindrical beams that were connected to the square parts by gilded stalactites (like those in 15th-century Cairo) spanned between a frieze decorated with an inscription in white letters on a blue background, supported by consoles decorated with red, blue and gilded ornaments. This beautiful work undoubtedly dates back to the 15th century renovation, which included the mihrab, the minbar and the mosaics that decorated the lower part of the wall. Nothing, however, was as attractive as the transept’s mosaics, which had been given to Walid by the Greek emperor and laid by Byzantine mosaic workers; they had a green and brown tone on a gilded background. The sheiks of the mosque claimed that these mosaics represented Mecca and Medina. Thanks to this splendid exteriour finish, the Great Mosque of Damascus, viewed from the courtyard, had a magnificent appearance.

As lavishly decorated as Cairo’s mosques were, its palace complexes were equally as stunning; should we agree with the description of historians, the Arab Muslims sought in every way to surpass the extreme luxury of Byzantine emperors.

The Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo

In 868, the Abbasid caliph Motawakkel appointed Ahmed Ibn Tulun governor of Egypt; the following year, Ibn Tulun virtually became independent, bringing Syria and Egypt together under his command. The luxury of his court was magnificent. He abandoned the former El Askar district capital and settled in the outskirts, in El-Kataï, which he founded in 868 and where he built his palace. Makrisi describes its wealth to us: a golden and azure room was decorated with wooden bas-reliefs with life-sized representations of him and his court; human figures were finished in gold, turbans were enhanced with precious stones, clothes were painted and encrusted. His palace was surrounded by those of his dignitaries. He built his mosque on Yachkur hill.

The Ibn Tulun is a mosque with porticos. Around it are groups of accessory buildings with external courtyards, whose layout is reminiscent of ancient Egyptian temples.

The mosque itself is one hundred and twenty metres long and thirty-eight metres wide; there is a small minaret at each corner of the sanctuary: the principal minaret is located outside the mosque. It is built of stone on a square plan. Niches like geminated Arabic arches adorn its side walls. According to Makrisi, the architect of this minaret and the mosque drew inspiration from the model of the Samarra mosque (erected 48 kilometres from Baghdad by the caliph Ouatek ibn Motassim in 542) – although the architecture of this region was made from bricks. This is also true of Mesopotamia, where gypsum was so beautiful and plentiful that the Assyrians used it for their high and bas-reliefs. One finds evidence of the four-column tradition in the use of attached columns surrounding a square or rectangular cluster at the Mosque of Ibn Tulun. The arcades in the naves of Ibn Tulun, where the tympanum between the arches is lightened by an openwork arcade, present a form whose origin is unknown. A similar shape can be found on Sassanian bridge piers at Dizful and Shushtar. Most ornamental details of this mosque are reminiscent of the decoration of Sassanian stars, especially those that are reminiscent of the winged globe of the capitals of Tak-i-Bostan. Finally, lancet windows evocative of the arches of monuments in Amman appeared for the first time in the Ibn Tulun Mosque. Considering the fact that Cairo was not lacking in stones, this preference for bricks clearly resulted from Mesopotamian traditions brought to Cairo during the reign of the Abbasids, which continued to influence architecture during the Shiite Fatimid dynasty.

Cantoned by four columns with Byzantine capitals, the mihrab is decorated with marble mosaics: its dome was made of wood, its framing of enamel mosaic rinceaus above it emerges a small wooden dome, supported by pendentives dating back to the restoration of Sultan Lagin in the 13th century, as well as the wooden mihrab and the openwork covering of the windows. These are not windows set in a plastered truss-frame, but slabs made of small stones cut into simple but very attractive geometric shapes.

The Dome of the Rock, interior dome,

1540-1550. Jerusalem.

Prayer hall in the Great Mosque of Damascus, 706-715.

Damascus.

Mihrab and minbar of the Great Mosque of Damascus, 706-715.

Damascus.

Minaret of the Great Mosque of Aleppo, early 8th century.

Aleppo.

The Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo

The Al-Azhar Mosque, constructed in Cairo by Jauhar, a Sicilian slave, general in the army of Al Moizz and the first Fatimid sovereign of Egypt, has a larger central nave, lined by two rows of pillars, and a design that is quite different from that of Ibn Tulun and Amrou. It was transformed into a madrasa not long after it was founded and has been renovated and expanded many times. The entrance doorway dates back to Kaït Bey, including the minaret, whose base is visible (1468-1496); a wooden fence that dates back to Kaït Bey, located below the first portico, has recently been restored. Four additional naves were added to the mosque by Abder-Rahman Katkhoda, whose tomb is located in one of the rooms towards the mosque’s southern tip.

These additions notwithstanding, it seems that the podium indicates a central nave, flanked by a twin-row of columns, which is an ancient design that most likely originated from Tunisia (where it is found in the great mosques in Sfax, Tunis, Kairouan, Mehdiya, Beja, Gafsa, etc.), the cradle of the Fatimid dynasty. While the recent sections are made of stone, the ancient sections of Al-Azhar are constructed with bricks covered in a thick levelling plaster coat with ornamental engravings; it is the same in the small dome at the entrance.

The courtyard is accessible through a broad passage. This entrance, dominated by the minarets of nearby madrasas, presents recycled Roman and Byzantine columns and their capitals. The wall of the courtyard is overlaid with an openwork frieze richer than that of Tulun, above which hollowed out openwork melons with six-level indentations rise. Al-Azhar arcades that span between columns have a slender, unique form, like the arches of niches interposed between them: this type of arch, made of bricks, was used quite often in Persia. Since the Fatimid dynasty was Shiite like the Persians, this form might somewhat have been the result of dealings with Persia, or a Persian architect might even have influenced it. This use of arches was evident for a long time in Cairo, even under the Mameluke-Baharites, when all monuments were made of hewn stones.

The Hassan Mosque in Cairo

Whereas Cairo’s mosques revealed, at the beginning of the 14th century, an increasingly unique trend towards stone construction – as seen in the Al Sankor mosque (1346) – a visit to the Sultan Hassan Mosque reveals an entire structure where Persian contributions fuse with other eastern and northern influences to create an important monument. This mosque, begun in 1350 and completed in 1362 by Sultan Mohammed Hassan, Al Nasser’s seventh son, is the most beautiful mosque based on the cruciform plan. It has in its centre an unshaded courtyard with an ablution fountain, and to the east of this courtyard is the sanctuary. Behind the lower wall is the tomb chamber, whose renovated dome dates back to the 17th century; the three other iwans complete the layout, and between the arms of the cross are the colleges of the four orthodox rites, each of which includes a courtyard, an iwan and rooms for students. Viewed from the exteriour, the mosque exudes grandeur and severity, towering into the sky with its two minarets, the tallest of which comprises three stories and stands fifty-five metres tall. The walls of the mosque are fitted with very attractive windows; long grooves run along the walls. A story told by Khalil Zahiri reveals that among all the influences that contributed to the composition of the plan of the Hassan Mosque, Asian and Mesopotamian influences rank first. According to his account, Sultan Hassan summoned architects from several countries and asked their opinions of the most impressive mosque in the world, so that he could construct his mosque to outshine it. He was told it was Khosroe Anushirvan’s iwan. He had it measured and drawn, and then had his mosque built three metres taller. The lateral facades of the Hassan Mosque have a unique decoration reaching up to the enormous cornice of stalactites and long, solid bands that separate the vertical series of windows. The unknown architect thus achieved, through the simplest of means, an extraordinary effect.

The dome which covered the mausoleum is bulbous, with corbelled ribs supported by pillars. The original plan of the mosque called for four minarets, but the minaret that overlooked the porch collapsed in 1360 and was never reconstructed, and a fourth was never built. Of the two remaining ones, the one in the southwest is the most beautiful. By way of a simple triangular glacis, it moved from the square plan to the octagonal plan. On four of its faces, the first part of the octagonal shaft has on four of its faces a long window and balcony supported by stalactites; on the other four, a flat niche, and windows or niches are still locked by an angle with rectilinear sides, which is the simplest form of the short brick arch. A stalactite cornice supports a second octagonal lower floor surmounted by a second, richer cornice with the last platform where, above eight arcades with slender stanchions, emerges the dome supported by a pedestal that remained the terminal pattern motif most frequently used on minarets in Cairo until the 17th century.

The lavishness of the mosque’s interiour reflected the splendour of its exterior. The main entrance was of bronze, with large panels filled with a polygonal network whose principal elements were decorated in high relief; the two panels were set in a flat bronze border with huge, decorative door knockers. This entrance, together with the gate, formed a rare and impressive example of Islamic art. Sultan El-Moyed had it placed in his mosque, where it stands today. He equally seized the bronze lustre he found in the Hassan Mosque, which was subsequently built; it is currently conserved in the Cairo museum along with twenty-four enamelled glass and gilded lamps equally from this mosque. A look at the numerous chains still hanging from the masonry arch in the grand iwan, each of which carries a lamp, is enough to imagine the stunning beauty that once characterised the interior of this monument. The iwan was decorated with low marble panelling; below the sanctuary, this panelling rose to the magnificent frieze in cut stucco where a Kufic inscription runs and which shows the springing of the vault. The dikka, the marble minbar, with chased bronze doors, and the mihrab inlaid with marble round out this structure with an extravagance that is severe and almost austere.