Cover
Title Page
Notes on Editors
Notes on Contributors
Foreword
Acknowledgements
1 Building Resilience in Urban Settlements Through Green Roof Retrofit
1. 1.0 Introduction
2. 1.1 Background and Context: Green Infrastructure
3. 1.2 Extensive and Intensive Systems
4. 1.3 Valuing Green Infrastructure and Wider Economic Benefits
5. 1.4 Measures of Greenness in Cities and the Growing Market for Green Roofs
6. 1.5 A Growing Global Market for Green Roofs
7. 1.6 Overview of the Structure of the Book
8. 1.7 Conclusion
9. References
2 Technical and Engineering Issues in Green Roof Retrofit
1. 2.0 Introduction
2. 2.1 Technical and Engineering Considerations
3. 2.2 Roof Structure and Covering Typologies
4. 2.3 Available Space
5. 2.4 Structural Capacity
6. 2.5 Waterproof Membranes and Insulation
7. 2.6 Drainage
8. 2.7 Heritage
9. 2.8 Green Roof Access
10. 2.9 Other Issues
11. 2.10 How to Determine Which Green Roof Type is Best Suited to Different Structures
12. 2.11 Illustrative Case Studies
13. 2.12 Conclusions
14. References
3 Green Roof Retrofit and the Urban Heat Island
1. 3.0 Introduction
2. 3.1 Defining the Urban Heat Island
3. 3.2 Microclimatic Effects of Rooftop Greening
4. 3.3 Green Roof Cooling Mechanisms
5. 3.4 Green Roof Retrofit for Uhi Mitigation – Defining the Boundaries
6. 3.5 Green Roof Retrofit for Uhi Mitigation – Developing the Model
7. 3.6 Model Implementation – Evaluating Sydney’s Surface and Canopy‐Layer Heat Islands
8. 3.7 Green Roof Retrofit for Uhi Mitigation – Model Implementation
9. 3.8 Conclusions – Where to from Here?
10. References
4 Thermal Performance of Green Roof Retrofit
1. 4.0 Introduction
2. 4.1 Green Roof Retrofit and Thermal Performance
3. 4.2 Research Methodology
4. 4.3 Case study: Rio de Janeiro and Sydney
5. 4.4 Conclusions
6. References
5 Stormwater Attenuation and Green Roof Retrofit
1. 5.0 Introduction
2. 5.1 The Problem of Pluvial Flooding
3. 5.2 Specifications for Stormwater Roofs and Issues for Retrofit
4. 5.3 Modelling for City‐Scale Stormwater Attenuation
5. 5.4 Assessment of Retrofit at a Building Scale
6. 5.5 Conclusions – Where to Next?
7. References
6 Biodiversity and Green Roof Retrofit
1. 6.0 Introduction
2. 6.1 What is Biodiversity?
3. 6.2 Green Roofs for Vertebrate Conservation
4. 6.3 Green Roofs for Invertebrate Conservation
5. 6.4 Conclusions
6. References
7 Planting Choices for Retrofitted Green Roofs
1. 7.0 Introduction
2. 7.1 Ecosystem Services Delivery By Green Roofs: The Importance of Plant Choice
3. 7.2 Plant Species Choice and Building Cooling/Insulation
4. 7.3 Plant Species Choice and Stormwater Management
5. 7.4 Greater Plant Variety can Enhance Urban Biodiversity
6. 7.5 Plant Choices and Particle Pollution Mitigation
7. 7.6 New Plant Choices and Adaptation of Current Green Roof Systems
8. 7.7 Conclusions and Future Work
9. References
8 Green Roof Retrofitting and Conservation of Endangered Flora
1. 8.0 Introduction
2. 8.1 Biodiversity Conservation – a Strategic Overview
3. 8.2 A Review of Green Roofs in Habitat Conservation
4. 8.3 Knowledge Gaps and Further Research
5. 8.4 A Model Research Design for Species Conservation
6. 8.5 Conclusions
7. References
9 Urban Food Production on Retrofitted Rooftops
1. 9.0 Introduction
2. 9.1 Green Roof Retrofit and Urban Food Production
3. 9.2 Stakeholders and Urban Food Production
4. 9.3 Contamination and Air‐Quality Issues
5. 9.4 The Research Design and Methodology
6. 9.5 The Carbon Footprint of Food Grown on Demonstration Beds
7. 9.6 Potential Reductions in Carbon Footprint
8. 9.7 Conclusions
9. References
10 Social Aspects of Institutional Rooftop Gardens
1. 10.0 Introduction and Objectives
2. 10.1 Social Aspects, Productivity and Sustainability Potential of Rooftop Gardens
3. 10.2 Methodology
4. 10.3 Main Findings
5. 10.4 Recommendations, Discussions and Conclusions
6. Acknowledgement
7. References
11 Cool Roof Retrofits as an Alternative to Green Roofs
1. 11.0 Introduction
2. 11.1 What is a Cool Roof?
3. 11.2 Background – How does a Cool Roof Work?
4. 11.3 Cool Roof Studies and Measurements
5. 11.4 The Experiments
6. 11.5 Conclusions
7. Acknowledgements
8. References
12 Looking to the Future
1. 12.0 Introduction
2. 12.1 City-level Actions: Basel and Paris
3. 12.2 City-level Actions: Requirements or Inducements?
4. 12.3 Tools and Information Sources
5. 12.4 Green Roofs: The Big Picture of GI and Future Developments
6. 12.5 Recognising the Multiple Benefits of Green Roof Retrofit
7. 12.6 Overall Conclusions
8. References
A1 Appendices
1. Appendix 1: A Checklist for Appraising the Suitability of an Existing Roof for Green Roof Retrofit
2. Appendix 2: Checklist for Designers of Biodiverse Green Roofs
3. Appendix 3: Tools, Information Sources and Mapping/Gis for Green Roofs – Some Examples
Index
End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 01
1. Table 1.1 Examples of GI assets (TCPA, 2012)
2. Table 1.2 Potential benefits of green infrastructure in a retail centre (NRDC, 2013)
Chapter 02
1. Table 2.1 Extensive green roof
2. Table 2.2 Intensive green roof
3. Table 2.3 Green roof type best suited to different structures
Chapter 03
1. Table 3.1 Key green roof properties which affect UHI mitigation
2. Table 3.2 LCZ subgroups, characteristic features and temperatures (surface and air)
3. Table 3.3 The effect of individual independent variables on night and daytime surface temperature of LCZs (°C)
4. Table 3.4 Observed versus predicted mean surface temperatures of LCZs (°C) modelled for mitigation scenarios with 50% and 100% extensive green roof retrofit, assuming 0% baseline green roof coverage in the case study area
Chapter 04
1. Table 4.1 Maximum, minimum and average temperatures for the two sets of data, Rio de Janeiro site
2. Table 4.2 Experimental temperature comparison between the Sydney and Rio de Janeiro sites
Chapter 05
1. Table 5.1 Green roof option
2. Table 5.2 Cross tabulation of conservation area, construction type and historic listing
3. Table 5.3 Cross tabulation of pitch and construction type for Newcastle study area
4. Table 5.4 Roofs judged suitable for extensive green roof retrofit based on pitch, historic listing and percentage coverage by plant in the Newcastle study area
5. Table 5.5 Roofs potentially suitable for intensive green roof retrofit in the Newcastle study area
6. Table 5.6 Melbourne and Newcastle stock compared for green roof retrofit
7. Table 5.7 Runoff calculations for Melbourne and Newcastle showing estimated percentage of total rainfall falling on the CBD managed by potential retrofit under three scenarios
8. Table 5.8 Summary of Ecoroof costs and benefits for private owner/investor
Chapter 07
1. Table 7.1 Substrate temperatures at 10 mm and 60 mm below the surface
2. Table 7.2 Substrate temperatures 60 mm below the surface in two types of winter scenario (Vaz Monteiro et al., 2016b)
3. Table 7.3 Mean substrate moisture content (SMC) of a water‐saturated substrate and a substrate after 3 days of drying; cumulative water lost from individual plant containers after 3 days of drying
4. Table 7.4 Mean percentage of water captured on a plant canopy (A) when soil is saturated or (C) after 3 days post‐saturation; (B) mean percentage of water sliding off a plant canopy
Chapter 09
1. Table 9.1 Three bed types and performance
2. Table 9.2 Food miles and carbon emissions in Sydney, Australia
Chapter 10
1. Table 10.1 Comparative analysis of eight rooftop gardens in universities
Chapter 12
1. Table 12.1 Implementation levels of green roof technology
2. Table 12.2 Green roof primary and secondary benefits
3. Table 12.3 Green‐roof‐type primary and co‐benefits

List of Illustrations

Chapter 01
1. Figure 1.1 The mythical Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
Chapter 02
1. Figure 2.1 Extensive green roof on metal sheet roof deck.
2. Figure 2.2 Pitched green roofs, 10° to 25° pitches.
3. Figure 2.3 Steep pitched green roofs, 26° to 35° pitches.
4. Figure 2.4 Examples of modular systems applied in different types of profiled metal sheeting.
5. Figure 2.5 Case study: Surry Hills Library and Community Centre Building, Sydney, Australia.
6. Figure 2.6 Case study: Beare Park, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney, Australia.
7. Figure 2.7 Case study: Beare Park, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney, Australia.
8. Figure 2.8 Case study: Village Mall, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
9. Figure 2.9 Case study: Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FioCruz), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
10. Figure 2.10 Case study: Gladstone Hotel, Toronto, Canada.
11. Figure 2.11 Case study: 107 Cheapside, London, UK.
Chapter 03
1. Figure 3.1 Urban boundary layer and canopy layer.
2. Figure 3.2 Properties of the urban canyon – length, width, height and orientation.
3. Figure 3.3 Airborne thermal image of the Sydney suburb of Chatswood (Irger, 2014). Indicated temperatures of grid cells show averages of night‐time (approximately 12 a.m.) and daytime (approximately 12 p.m.) surface temperatures in degrees Celsius based on imagery obtained 5 August 2012.
4. Figure 3.4 Extensive green roof energy balance model.
Chapter 04
1. Figure 4.1 Rectangular plastic containers used in the temperature experiments. (a) Brazilian module, provided by Cidade Jardim Institute. (b) Australian module.
2. Figure 4.2 Housing thermal experiments. Left: Rio de Janeiro. Right: Sydney.
3. Figure 4.3 Comparison between non‐green and green roofs’ internal temperature, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (first set of data: 17/10/2012–29/04/2013).
4. Figure 4.4 Comparison between non‐green and green roofs’ internal temperature, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (second set of data: 22/05/2014–18/11/2014).
5. Figure 4.5 Typical detail of the temperature records between green and non‐green (bare) roofs, Rio de Janeiro site.
6. Figure 4.6 Maximum, minimum and average daily temperatures and their differences for non‐green and green roofs, Rio de Janeiro.
7. Figure 4.7 Influence of shadows on temperature caused by adjacent buildings for Sydney experimental roofs.
8. Figure 4.8 Comparison between non‐green and green roofs’ internal temperature, Sydney, Australia.
9. Figure 4.9 Typical detail of the temperature records between green and non‐green roofs, Sydney, Australia.
10. Figure 4.10 Maximum, minimum and average daily temperatures and their differences for non'green and green roofs, Sydney, Australia.
Chapter 05
1. Figure 5.1 Overviews of the building styles in Newcastle‐upon‐Tyne’s CBD (left) and Melbourne (right).
2. Figure 5.2 Roofscapes of Portland, OR taken from two vantage points: (a) the heart of the city with views of green roofs; (b) across the Williamette from the green roof of the Multnomah building.
3. Figure 5.3 Distribution of benefits from local authority investment in green roofs.
4. Figure 5.4 Number of storeys in Melbourne CBD buildings.
5. Figure 5.5 Building orientation in Melbourne CBD.
6. Figure 5.6 Histogram of building heights in storeys for Newcastle study area.
7. Figure 5.7 Conceptual model of distributed benefits of green roof technology from the perspective of owners and occupiers of commercial buildings.
Chapter 07
1. Figure 7.1 Conventional plant species choice on green roofs could include (a) Sedum mixes, grasses and bulbs, while a wider range can be considered to include (b) herbaceous perennials and sub‐shrubs where additional irrigation is possible.
2. Figure 7.2 Representation of energy exchange processes on a green roof.
3. Figure 7.3 Images of plant species used in the experiment: (a) Sedum; (b) Bergenia; (c) Stachys; (d) Hedera.
4. Figure 7.4 Plant species/cultivars used in the experiments: (a) S. officinalis; (b) Sempervivum; (c) Heuchera ‘Obsidian’ – yellow and ‘Electra’ – purple).
5. Figure 7.5 Plots with sensors in use in summer 2013 at the experimental grounds of the University of Reading (UK). General view of the experimental site (left), unvegetated/bare substrate shaded by netting (right).
Chapter 08
1. Figure 8.1 (a) Pre‐development habitat; (b) fragmented landscape post‐development, showing a rail reserve, major park and smaller green spaces; (c) new ‘stepping stone’ spaces (such as green roofs) link existing parks and reserves. The black lines represent connectivity.
2. Figure 8.2 Location of ESBS sites.
3. Figure 8.3 The ‘scrub’ in rich profusion.
4. Figure 8.4 Experimental design for the ESBS green roof project.
Chapter 09
1. Figure 9.1 Location of UTS campus and project rooftops.
2. Figure 9.2 Gumal bed under construction.
3. Figure 9.3 Gumal bed planted out.
4. Figure 9.4 Wicking bed on Science roof (December 2013).
5. Figure 9.5 Wicking bed on Science roof (January 2014).
6. Figure 9.6 V Gardens on level 5 roof.
7. Figure 9.7 V Garden with wicking bed.
Chapter 10
1. Figure 10.1 Vegetable production at the UTS rooftop garden, Sydney.
2. Figure 10.2 Milkwood, 107 Projects rooftop garden, Sydney.
3. Figure 10.3 ‘GROW’ programme at St Canice Kitchen Garden, Kings Cross, Sydney.
Chapter 11
1. Figure 11.1 Buildings and location.
2. Figure 11.2 Experimental setup.
3. Figure 11.3 Summer indoor temperature across 24 hours (note first letter for each line is the building – i.e. FDbT= building F Dry bulb temperature).
4. Figure 11.4 Summer roof temperature across 14 days (note first letter for each line is the building – i.e. FRT= building F Roof Temperature).
5. Figure 11.5 Summer roof temperature across 24 hours.
6. Figure 11.6 Summer roof reflection across 24 hours.
7. Figure 11.7 Simulated impact of roof pitch and CRP on cooling energy.
8. Figure 11.8 Simulated ceiling space temperatures.
9. Figure 11.9 Roof surface temperature for green roof and control metal roof.
10. Figure 11.10 Roof surface temperature for green roofs and white roofs (7 February 2012)
11. Figure 11.11 Internal temperature (1 January 2012).
12. Figure 11.12 Roof horizontal reflection.
13. Figure 11.13 Internal summer temperature of buildings J and H (note first letter for each line is the building – i.e. HBbT= building H Black bulb temperature).
14. Figure 11.14 Internal winter temperature of buildings J and H.
15. Figure 11.15 Surface temperature of buildings J and H (24 February 2012).
16. Figure 11.16 Buildings J and H, and test PV panels.

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This edition first published 2016
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Cover Image: Byron Smith, Urban Growers, Sydney. www.urbangrowers.com.au.

Notes on Contributors

Assistant Professor Lu Aye has over 35 years of engineering experience in university teaching, research, development, demonstration and commercialisation of renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies. He is a leading expert in modelling, simulation and optimisation of energy systems.

Dr John Blair heads the Master of Sustainable Development course as part of UNSW’s Sustainable Built Environment programme. He is currently undertaking research on greening rail corridors to secure a range of benefits, particularly carbon storage and sequestration.

Dr Tijana Blanusa completed a PhD in Plant Biology and joined the Royal Horticultural Society where she is Principal Horticultural Scientist, based at the University of Reading. Her research interests are in understanding the provision of ecosystem services by urban vegetation. She runs projects investigating the contribution of green roofs, green walls, garden hedges and other forms of green infrastructure to the moderation of air temperatures, capture of rainwater and aerial particulate pollutants.

Dr Ross Cameron is a horticultural scientist who specialises in urban green infrastructure and leads a research team covering various aspects of ecosystem service delivery and climate change adaptation in landscape plants. This includes research on green roof and green wall plants and their impact on the thermal properties of built structures.

Dr Renato Castiglia Feitosa has a Civil Engineering degree from the State University of Rio de Janeiro (1996), an MSc (2003) and a PhD (2007) in Coastal and Oceanographic Engineering from the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro. He is a lecturer at the University Estacio de Sa and a researcher at the National School of Public Health (ENSP) – Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FioCruz).

Dr Sumita Ghosh is an academic, architect and urban planner who focuses on responsive urban design and spatial planning in the School of Built Environment at UTS. She has over 20 years’ teaching, research and professional experience for government, local councils, research organisations and universities in Australia, New Zealand and India. Her research focuses on urban sustainability and green infrastructure planning (urban forestry and local food production).

Dr Angela Giovanangeli teaches in the School of International Studies at the University of Technology Sydney. Her research examines cultural initiatives and urban regeneration.

Dr Dominique Hes is an academic at the University of Melbourne specialising in multidisciplinary approaches to complex questions. Her recent book Designing for Hope: Pathways to Regenerative Sustainability explores the power of projects that provide social and ecological benefits; green infrastructure is a key element of this.

Dr Matthias Irger is an architect and urbanist who specialises in climate‐responsive design and planning. His research interests focus on the effect of the built environment on the urban microclimate to improve the heat resilience and carbon footprint of cities.

Chris Jensen draws on his 12 years as an ESD consultant to provide industry‐relevant research in architectural science and construction innovation. He has a particular interest in new technology for passive performance.

Sarah Kemp is undertaking a PhD in the School of Agriculture, Policy and Development, where she is investigating the impact of plant species choice on green roofs and the ability of green roofs to sequester rainwater.

Dr Jessica Lamond is Associate Professor in the Centre for Floods, Communities and Resilience at the University of the West of England. Jessica’s research focuses on understanding the socio‐technical aspects of structural and non‐structural responses to flood risk and climate adaptation in the built environment. This includes work on the multiple benefits of blue green infrastructure as a flood and stormwater management approach. Jessica has published widely, including in leading journals such as Housing Studies, Urban Design and Planning and Journal of Risk Research, and is co‐author of the World Bank integrated handbook Cities and Flooding.

Dr Tanya Latty is an entomologist with a special interest in insect behaviour and ecology. She has a BSc in Biology and Environmental Science from Trent University (Canada) and a PhD in insect ecology from the University of Calgary (Canada). Her highly interdisciplinary work involves local and international collaborations with researchers in a broad range of fields including mathematics, computer science, forestry and operations research.

Dr Paul Osmond is Director of the Sustainable Built Environment Programme at the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia. His research interests cross a range of topics in the broad domain of built environment sustainability.

Professor David Proverbs began his academic career in 1994, following 10 years of project management experience in the UK construction sector. He is Associate Dean – International in the Faculty of Computing, Engineering and the Built Environment at Birmingham City University. From 2013 to 2014 he was Co‐Director, Centre for Flooding Communities and Resilience, University of the West of England. He has published widely on the topic of flooding and disaster prevention and management. David chairs the UK Council of Heads of the Built Environment (CHOBE) and co‐edits Structural Survey – Journal of Building Pathology and Refurbishment.

Dr Fraser Torpy AssDipAppSc (STC), BSc (Hons) (UTS), PhD (UTS) started at UTS in 1991 and currently lectures in the School of the Environment. He has been undergraduate programme director for all environmental courses since 2013. His research focuses on the relationship between plants and urban environmental quality, with a current emphasis on several aspects related to green wall technology and urban greening. He has over 15 years' experience in horticultural biotechnology and has been instrumental in broadening our understanding of how plants can contribute to improved air quality in cities. He is director of the Plants and Environmental Quality Research Group at UTS.

Dr Ilaria Vanni is a teacher and researcher in the School of International Studies at the University of Technology Sydney. Her research is in the field of cultural history, with a focus on urban activism.

Dr Madalena Vaz Monteiro’s PhD investigated the impact of plant structure and function on temperature regulation and the surface energy balance. Currently, she is involved with research aiming to better understand ecosystem services delivery by urban trees.